diff --git a/src/writer/spirv/builder.cc b/src/writer/spirv/builder.cc
index e1cc57b..283043e 100644
--- a/src/writer/spirv/builder.cc
+++ b/src/writer/spirv/builder.cc
@@ -369,9 +369,12 @@
   }
 }
 
-void Builder::GenerateLabel(uint32_t id) {
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpLabel, {Operand::Int(id)});
+bool Builder::GenerateLabel(uint32_t id) {
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpLabel, {Operand::Int(id)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
   current_label_id_ = id;
+  return true;
 }
 
 uint32_t Builder::GenerateU32Literal(uint32_t val) {
@@ -393,8 +396,7 @@
   // If the thing we're assigning is a pointer then we must load it first.
   rhs_id = GenerateLoadIfNeeded(assign->rhs()->result_type(), rhs_id);
 
-  GenerateStore(lhs_id, rhs_id);
-  return true;
+  return GenerateStore(lhs_id, rhs_id);
 }
 
 bool Builder::GenerateBreakStatement(ast::BreakStatement*) {
@@ -402,7 +404,10 @@
     error_ = "Attempted to break without a merge block";
     return false;
   }
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(merge_stack_.back())});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch,
+                          {Operand::Int(merge_stack_.back())})) {
+    return false;
+  }
   return true;
 }
 
@@ -411,7 +416,10 @@
     error_ = "Attempted to continue without a continue block";
     return false;
   }
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(continue_stack_.back())});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch,
+                          {Operand::Int(continue_stack_.back())})) {
+    return false;
+  }
   return true;
 }
 
@@ -419,7 +427,9 @@
 // haven't been defined for WGSL yet. So, this may need to change.
 // https://github.com/gpuweb/gpuweb/issues/676
 bool Builder::GenerateDiscardStatement(ast::DiscardStatement*) {
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpKill, {});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpKill, {})) {
+    return false;
+  }
   return true;
 }
 
@@ -658,7 +668,9 @@
                      Operand::Int(null_id)});
 
   if (var->has_constructor()) {
-    GenerateStore(var_id, init_id);
+    if (!GenerateStore(var_id, init_id)) {
+      return false;
+    }
   }
 
   scope_stack_.set(var->name(), var_id);
@@ -667,8 +679,9 @@
   return true;
 }
 
-void Builder::GenerateStore(uint32_t to, uint32_t from) {
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpStore, {Operand::Int(to), Operand::Int(from)});
+bool Builder::GenerateStore(uint32_t to, uint32_t from) {
+  return push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpStore,
+                            {Operand::Int(to), Operand::Int(from)});
 }
 
 bool Builder::GenerateGlobalVariable(ast::Variable* var) {
@@ -839,9 +852,12 @@
   auto extract = result_op();
   auto extract_id = extract.to_i();
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpVectorExtractDynamic,
-                     {Operand::Int(result_type_id), extract,
-                      Operand::Int(info->source_id), Operand::Int(idx_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(
+          spv::Op::OpVectorExtractDynamic,
+          {Operand::Int(result_type_id), extract, Operand::Int(info->source_id),
+           Operand::Int(idx_id)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   info->source_id = extract_id;
   info->source_type = expr->result_type();
@@ -912,9 +928,12 @@
 
       auto extract = result_op();
       auto extract_id = extract.to_i();
-      push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpCompositeExtract,
-                         {Operand::Int(result_type_id), extract,
-                          Operand::Int(info->source_id), Operand::Int(val)});
+      if (!push_function_inst(
+              spv::Op::OpCompositeExtract,
+              {Operand::Int(result_type_id), extract,
+               Operand::Int(info->source_id), Operand::Int(val)})) {
+        return false;
+      }
 
       info->source_id = extract_id;
       info->source_type = expr->result_type();
@@ -941,7 +960,9 @@
       ops.push_back(Operand::Int(id));
     }
 
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpAccessChain, ops);
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpAccessChain, ops)) {
+      return false;
+    }
 
     info->source_id = GenerateLoadIfNeeded(expr->result_type(), extract_id);
     info->source_type = expr->result_type()->UnwrapPtrIfNeeded();
@@ -971,7 +992,9 @@
     ops.push_back(Operand::Int(val));
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpVectorShuffle, ops);
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpVectorShuffle, ops)) {
+    return false;
+  }
   info->source_id = result_id;
   info->source_type = expr->result_type();
 
@@ -1032,8 +1055,10 @@
            Operand::Int(ConvertStorageClass(ast::StorageClass::kFunction)),
            Operand::Int(init)});
 
-      push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpStore,
-                         {ary_result, Operand::Int(info.source_id)});
+      if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpStore,
+                              {ary_result, Operand::Int(info.source_id)})) {
+        return false;
+      }
 
       info.source_id = ary_result.to_i();
     }
@@ -1071,7 +1096,9 @@
       ops.push_back(Operand::Int(id));
     }
 
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpAccessChain, ops);
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpAccessChain, ops)) {
+      return false;
+    }
     info.source_id = result_id;
   }
 
@@ -1097,8 +1124,10 @@
   auto type_id = GenerateTypeIfNeeded(type->UnwrapPtrIfNeeded());
   auto result = result_op();
   auto result_id = result.to_i();
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpLoad,
-                     {Operand::Int(type_id), result, Operand::Int(id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpLoad,
+                          {Operand::Int(type_id), result, Operand::Int(id)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
   return result_id;
 }
 
@@ -1132,7 +1161,10 @@
     return 0;
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(op, {Operand::Int(type_id), result, Operand::Int(val_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(
+          op, {Operand::Int(type_id), result, Operand::Int(val_id)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   return result_id;
 }
@@ -1329,9 +1361,11 @@
 
         if (!is_global_init) {
           // A non-global initializer. Case 2.
-          push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpCompositeExtract,
-                             {Operand::Int(value_type_id), extract,
-                              Operand::Int(id), Operand::Int(i)});
+          if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpCompositeExtract,
+                                  {Operand::Int(value_type_id), extract,
+                                   Operand::Int(id), Operand::Int(i)})) {
+            return false;
+          }
 
           // We no longer have a constant composite, but have to do a
           // composite construction as these calls are inside a function.
@@ -1376,7 +1410,9 @@
   } else if (result_is_constant_composite) {
     push_type(spv::Op::OpConstantComposite, ops);
   } else {
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpCompositeConstruct, ops);
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpCompositeConstruct, ops)) {
+      return 0;
+    }
   }
 
   return result.to_i();
@@ -1445,8 +1481,10 @@
     return 0;
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(
-      op, {Operand::Int(result_type_id), result, Operand::Int(val_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(
+          op, {Operand::Int(result_type_id), result, Operand::Int(val_id)})) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   return result_id;
 }
@@ -1540,15 +1578,21 @@
     std::swap(true_block_id, false_block_id);
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSelectionMerge,
-                     {Operand::Int(merge_block_id),
-                      Operand::Int(SpvSelectionControlMaskNone)});
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranchConditional,
-                     {Operand::Int(lhs_id), Operand::Int(true_block_id),
-                      Operand::Int(false_block_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSelectionMerge,
+                          {Operand::Int(merge_block_id),
+                           Operand::Int(SpvSelectionControlMaskNone)})) {
+    return 0;
+  }
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranchConditional,
+                          {Operand::Int(lhs_id), Operand::Int(true_block_id),
+                           Operand::Int(false_block_id)})) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   // Output block to check the RHS
-  GenerateLabel(block_id);
+  if (!GenerateLabel(block_id)) {
+    return 0;
+  }
   auto rhs_id = GenerateExpression(expr->rhs());
   if (rhs_id == 0) {
     return 0;
@@ -1558,18 +1602,24 @@
   // Get the block ID of the last basic block generated for the right-hand-side
   // expression. That block will be an immediate predecessor to the merge block.
   auto rhs_block_id = current_label_id_;
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)})) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   // Output the merge block
-  GenerateLabel(merge_block_id);
+  if (!GenerateLabel(merge_block_id)) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   auto result = result_op();
   auto result_id = result.to_i();
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpPhi,
-                     {Operand::Int(type_id), result, Operand::Int(lhs_id),
-                      Operand::Int(original_label_id), Operand::Int(rhs_id),
-                      Operand::Int(rhs_block_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpPhi,
+                          {Operand::Int(type_id), result, Operand::Int(lhs_id),
+                           Operand::Int(original_label_id),
+                           Operand::Int(rhs_id), Operand::Int(rhs_block_id)})) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   return result_id;
 }
@@ -1721,8 +1771,10 @@
     return 0;
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(op, {Operand::Int(type_id), result, Operand::Int(lhs_id),
-                          Operand::Int(rhs_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(op, {Operand::Int(type_id), result,
+                               Operand::Int(lhs_id), Operand::Int(rhs_id)})) {
+    return 0;
+  }
   return result_id;
 }
 
@@ -1776,7 +1828,9 @@
     ops.push_back(Operand::Int(id));
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpFunctionCall, std::move(ops));
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpFunctionCall, std::move(ops))) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   return result_id;
 }
@@ -1794,7 +1848,10 @@
   auto intrinsic = ident->intrinsic();
 
   if (ast::intrinsic::IsTextureIntrinsic(intrinsic)) {
-    GenerateTextureIntrinsic(ident, call, Operand::Int(result_type_id), result);
+    if (!GenerateTextureIntrinsic(ident, call, Operand::Int(result_type_id),
+                                  result)) {
+      return 0;
+    }
     return result_id;
   }
 
@@ -1839,7 +1896,9 @@
     params.push_back(Operand::Int(
         uint32_t(type->As<ast::type::Struct>()->impl()->members().size() - 1)));
 
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpArrayLength, params);
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpArrayLength, params)) {
+      return 0;
+    }
     return result_id;
   } else if (intrinsic == ast::Intrinsic::kCountOneBits) {
     op = spv::Op::OpBitCount;
@@ -1910,12 +1969,14 @@
     params.emplace_back(Operand::Int(val_id));
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(op, params);
+  if (!push_function_inst(op, params)) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   return result_id;
 }
 
-void Builder::GenerateTextureIntrinsic(ast::IdentifierExpression* ident,
+bool Builder::GenerateTextureIntrinsic(ast::IdentifierExpression* ident,
                                        ast::CallExpression* call,
                                        spirv::Operand result_type,
                                        spirv::Operand result_id) {
@@ -1959,7 +2020,7 @@
   std::vector<ImageOperand> image_operands;
   image_operands.reserve(4);  // Enough to fit most parameter lists
 
-  auto append_coords_to_spirv_params = [&] {
+  auto append_coords_to_spirv_params = [&]() -> bool {
     if (pidx.array_index != kNotUsed) {
       // Array index needs to be appended to the coordinates.
       auto* param_coords = call->params()[pidx.coords];
@@ -1975,14 +2036,15 @@
                           spirv_params.emplace_back(Operand::Int(param));
                           return true;
                         })) {
-        return;
+        return false;
       }
     } else {
       spirv_params.emplace_back(gen_param(pidx.coords));  // coordinates
     }
+    return true;
   };
 
-  auto append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params = [&] {
+  auto append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params = [&]() -> bool {
     assert(pidx.sampler != kNotUsed);
     assert(pidx.texture != kNotUsed);
     auto sampler_param = gen_param(pidx.sampler);
@@ -1992,7 +2054,7 @@
 
     // Populate the spirv_params with the common parameters
     spirv_params.emplace_back(Operand::Int(sampled_image));  // sampled image
-    append_coords_to_spirv_params();
+    return append_coords_to_spirv_params();
   };
 
   switch (ident->intrinsic()) {
@@ -2001,7 +2063,9 @@
                ? spv::Op::OpImageRead
                : spv::Op::OpImageFetch;
       spirv_params.emplace_back(gen_param(pidx.texture));
-      append_coords_to_spirv_params();
+      if (!append_coords_to_spirv_params()) {
+        return false;
+      }
 
       if (pidx.level != kNotUsed) {
         image_operands.emplace_back(
@@ -2018,18 +2082,24 @@
     case ast::Intrinsic::kTextureStore: {
       op = spv::Op::OpImageWrite;
       spirv_params.emplace_back(gen_param(pidx.texture));
-      append_coords_to_spirv_params();
+      if (!append_coords_to_spirv_params()) {
+        return false;
+      }
       spirv_params.emplace_back(gen_param(pidx.value));
       break;
     }
     case ast::Intrinsic::kTextureSample: {
       op = spv::Op::OpImageSampleImplicitLod;
-      append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params();
+      if (!append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params()) {
+        return false;
+      }
       break;
     }
     case ast::Intrinsic::kTextureSampleBias: {
       op = spv::Op::OpImageSampleImplicitLod;
-      append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params();
+      if (!append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params()) {
+        return false;
+      }
       assert(pidx.bias != kNotUsed);
       image_operands.emplace_back(
           ImageOperand{SpvImageOperandsBiasMask, gen_param(pidx.bias)});
@@ -2037,7 +2107,9 @@
     }
     case ast::Intrinsic::kTextureSampleLevel: {
       op = spv::Op::OpImageSampleExplicitLod;
-      append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params();
+      if (!append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params()) {
+        return false;
+      }
       assert(pidx.level != kNotUsed);
       image_operands.emplace_back(
           ImageOperand{SpvImageOperandsLodMask, gen_param(pidx.level)});
@@ -2045,7 +2117,9 @@
     }
     case ast::Intrinsic::kTextureSampleGrad: {
       op = spv::Op::OpImageSampleExplicitLod;
-      append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params();
+      if (!append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params()) {
+        return false;
+      }
       assert(pidx.ddx != kNotUsed);
       assert(pidx.ddy != kNotUsed);
       image_operands.emplace_back(
@@ -2056,7 +2130,9 @@
     }
     case ast::Intrinsic::kTextureSampleCompare: {
       op = spv::Op::OpImageSampleDrefExplicitLod;
-      append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params();
+      if (!append_image_and_coords_to_spirv_params()) {
+        return false;
+      }
       assert(pidx.depth_ref != kNotUsed);
       spirv_params.emplace_back(gen_param(pidx.depth_ref));
 
@@ -2091,10 +2167,10 @@
 
   if (op == spv::Op::OpNop) {
     error_ = "unable to determine operator for: " + ident->name();
-    return;
+    return false;
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(op, spirv_params);
+  return push_function_inst(op, spirv_params);
 }
 
 uint32_t Builder::GenerateSampledImage(ast::type::Type* texture_type,
@@ -2118,9 +2194,11 @@
   }
 
   auto sampled_image = result_op();
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSampledImage,
-                     {Operand::Int(sampled_image_type_id), sampled_image,
-                      texture_operand, sampler_operand});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSampledImage,
+                          {Operand::Int(sampled_image_type_id), sampled_image,
+                           texture_operand, sampler_operand})) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   return sampled_image.to_i();
 }
@@ -2144,13 +2222,18 @@
   auto* to_type = expr->result_type()->UnwrapPtrIfNeeded();
   auto* from_type = expr->expr()->result_type()->UnwrapPtrIfNeeded();
   if (to_type->type_name() == from_type->type_name()) {
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpCopyObject, {Operand::Int(result_type_id),
-                                               result, Operand::Int(val_id)});
+    if (!push_function_inst(
+            spv::Op::OpCopyObject,
+            {Operand::Int(result_type_id), result, Operand::Int(val_id)})) {
+      return 0;
+    }
     return result_id;
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBitcast, {Operand::Int(result_type_id), result,
-                                          Operand::Int(val_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBitcast, {Operand::Int(result_type_id),
+                                               result, Operand::Int(val_id)})) {
+    return 0;
+  }
 
   return result_id;
 }
@@ -2169,9 +2252,11 @@
   auto merge_block = result_op();
   auto merge_block_id = merge_block.to_i();
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSelectionMerge,
-                     {Operand::Int(merge_block_id),
-                      Operand::Int(SpvSelectionControlMaskNone)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSelectionMerge,
+                          {Operand::Int(merge_block_id),
+                           Operand::Int(SpvSelectionControlMaskNone)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   auto true_block = result_op();
   auto true_block_id = true_block.to_i();
@@ -2181,23 +2266,32 @@
   auto false_block_id =
       cur_else_idx < else_stmts.size() ? next_id() : merge_block_id;
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranchConditional,
-                     {Operand::Int(cond_id), Operand::Int(true_block_id),
-                      Operand::Int(false_block_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranchConditional,
+                          {Operand::Int(cond_id), Operand::Int(true_block_id),
+                           Operand::Int(false_block_id)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   // Output true block
-  GenerateLabel(true_block_id);
+  if (!GenerateLabel(true_block_id)) {
+    return false;
+  }
   if (!GenerateBlockStatement(true_body)) {
     return false;
   }
   // We only branch if the last element of the body didn't already branch.
   if (!LastIsTerminator(true_body)) {
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)});
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch,
+                            {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)})) {
+      return false;
+    }
   }
 
   // Start the false block if needed
   if (false_block_id != merge_block_id) {
-    GenerateLabel(false_block_id);
+    if (!GenerateLabel(false_block_id)) {
+      return false;
+    }
 
     auto* else_stmt = else_stmts[cur_else_idx];
     // Handle the else case by just outputting the statements.
@@ -2212,14 +2306,15 @@
       }
     }
     if (!LastIsTerminator(else_stmt->body())) {
-      push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)});
+      if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch,
+                              {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)})) {
+        return false;
+      }
     }
   }
 
   // Output the merge block
-  GenerateLabel(merge_block_id);
-
-  return true;
+  return GenerateLabel(merge_block_id);
 }
 
 bool Builder::GenerateIfStatement(ast::IfStatement* stmt) {
@@ -2269,10 +2364,14 @@
     }
   }
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSelectionMerge,
-                     {Operand::Int(merge_block_id),
-                      Operand::Int(SpvSelectionControlMaskNone)});
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSwitch, params);
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSelectionMerge,
+                          {Operand::Int(merge_block_id),
+                           Operand::Int(SpvSelectionControlMaskNone)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpSwitch, params)) {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   bool generated_default = false;
   auto& body = stmt->body();
@@ -2287,7 +2386,9 @@
       generated_default = true;
     }
 
-    GenerateLabel(case_ids[i]);
+    if (!GenerateLabel(case_ids[i])) {
+      return false;
+    }
     if (!GenerateBlockStatement(item->body())) {
       return false;
     }
@@ -2297,21 +2398,31 @@
         error_ = "fallthrough of last case statement is disallowed";
         return false;
       }
-      push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(case_ids[i + 1])});
+      if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch,
+                              {Operand::Int(case_ids[i + 1])})) {
+        return false;
+      }
     } else if (!LastIsTerminator(item->body())) {
-      push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)});
+      if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch,
+                              {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)})) {
+        return false;
+      }
     }
   }
 
   if (!generated_default) {
-    GenerateLabel(default_block_id);
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)});
+    if (!GenerateLabel(default_block_id)) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch,
+                            {Operand::Int(merge_block_id)})) {
+      return false;
+    }
   }
 
   merge_stack_.pop_back();
 
-  GenerateLabel(merge_block_id);
-  return true;
+  return GenerateLabel(merge_block_id);
 }
 
 bool Builder::GenerateReturnStatement(ast::ReturnStatement* stmt) {
@@ -2321,9 +2432,13 @@
       return false;
     }
     val_id = GenerateLoadIfNeeded(stmt->value()->result_type(), val_id);
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpReturnValue, {Operand::Int(val_id)});
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpReturnValue, {Operand::Int(val_id)})) {
+      return false;
+    }
   } else {
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpReturn, {});
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpReturn, {})) {
+      return false;
+    }
   }
 
   return true;
@@ -2332,8 +2447,12 @@
 bool Builder::GenerateLoopStatement(ast::LoopStatement* stmt) {
   auto loop_header = result_op();
   auto loop_header_id = loop_header.to_i();
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(loop_header_id)});
-  GenerateLabel(loop_header_id);
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(loop_header_id)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  if (!GenerateLabel(loop_header_id)) {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   auto merge_block = result_op();
   auto merge_block_id = merge_block.to_i();
@@ -2343,37 +2462,48 @@
   auto body_block = result_op();
   auto body_block_id = body_block.to_i();
 
-  push_function_inst(
-      spv::Op::OpLoopMerge,
-      {Operand::Int(merge_block_id), Operand::Int(continue_block_id),
-       Operand::Int(SpvLoopControlMaskNone)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(
+          spv::Op::OpLoopMerge,
+          {Operand::Int(merge_block_id), Operand::Int(continue_block_id),
+           Operand::Int(SpvLoopControlMaskNone)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   continue_stack_.push_back(continue_block_id);
   merge_stack_.push_back(merge_block_id);
 
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(body_block_id)});
-  GenerateLabel(body_block_id);
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(body_block_id)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  if (!GenerateLabel(body_block_id)) {
+    return false;
+  }
   if (!GenerateBlockStatement(stmt->body())) {
     return false;
   }
 
   // We only branch if the last element of the body didn't already branch.
   if (!LastIsTerminator(stmt->body())) {
-    push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(continue_block_id)});
+    if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch,
+                            {Operand::Int(continue_block_id)})) {
+      return false;
+    }
   }
 
-  GenerateLabel(continue_block_id);
+  if (!GenerateLabel(continue_block_id)) {
+    return false;
+  }
   if (!GenerateBlockStatement(stmt->continuing())) {
     return false;
   }
-  push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(loop_header_id)});
+  if (!push_function_inst(spv::Op::OpBranch, {Operand::Int(loop_header_id)})) {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   merge_stack_.pop_back();
   continue_stack_.pop_back();
 
-  GenerateLabel(merge_block_id);
-
-  return true;
+  return GenerateLabel(merge_block_id);
 }
 
 bool Builder::GenerateStatement(ast::Statement* stmt) {
@@ -2903,6 +3033,18 @@
   return SpvImageFormatUnknown;
 }
 
+bool Builder::push_function_inst(spv::Op op, const OperandList& operands) {
+  if (functions_.empty()) {
+    std::ostringstream ss;
+    ss << "Internal error: trying to add SPIR-V instruction " << int(op)
+       << " outside a function";
+    error_ = ss.str();
+    return false;
+  }
+  functions_.back().push_inst(op, operands);
+  return true;
+}
+
 }  // namespace spirv
 }  // namespace writer
 }  // namespace tint
diff --git a/src/writer/spirv/builder.h b/src/writer/spirv/builder.h
index e578c29..aad13ba 100644
--- a/src/writer/spirv/builder.h
+++ b/src/writer/spirv/builder.h
@@ -192,13 +192,12 @@
   }
   /// @returns the functions
   const std::vector<Function>& functions() const { return functions_; }
-  /// Pushes an instruction to the current function
+  /// Pushes an instruction to the current function. If we're outside
+  /// a function then issue an internal error and return false.
   /// @param op the operation
   /// @param operands the operands
-  void push_function_inst(spv::Op op, const OperandList& operands) {
-    assert(!functions_.empty());
-    functions_.back().push_inst(op, operands);
-  }
+  /// @returns true if we succeeded
+  bool push_function_inst(spv::Op op, const OperandList& operands);
   /// Pushes a variable to the current function
   /// @param operands the variable operands
   void push_function_var(const OperandList& operands) {
@@ -215,9 +214,11 @@
   /// @returns the SPIR-V builtin or SpvBuiltInMax on error.
   SpvBuiltIn ConvertBuiltin(ast::Builtin builtin) const;
 
-  /// Generates a label for the given id
+  /// Generates a label for the given id. Emits an error and returns false if
+  /// we're currently outside a function.
   /// @param id the id to use for the label
-  void GenerateLabel(uint32_t id);
+  /// @returns true on success.
+  bool GenerateLabel(uint32_t id);
   /// Generates a uint32_t literal.
   /// @param val the value to generate
   /// @returns the ID of the generated literal
@@ -355,13 +356,15 @@
   /// @returns the expression ID on success or 0 otherwise
   uint32_t GenerateIntrinsic(ast::IdentifierExpression* ident,
                              ast::CallExpression* call);
-  /// Generates a texture intrinsic call
+  /// Generates a texture intrinsic call. Emits an error and returns false if
+  /// we're currently outside a function.
   /// @param ident the texture intrinsic
   /// @param call the call expression
   /// @param result_type result type operand of the texture instruction
   /// @param result_id result identifier operand of the texture instruction
   /// parameters
-  void GenerateTextureIntrinsic(ast::IdentifierExpression* ident,
+  /// @returns true on success
+  bool GenerateTextureIntrinsic(ast::IdentifierExpression* ident,
                                 ast::CallExpression* call,
                                 spirv::Operand result_type,
                                 spirv::Operand result_id);
@@ -412,10 +415,12 @@
   /// @param id the variable id to load
   /// @returns the ID of the loaded value or `id` if type is not a pointer
   uint32_t GenerateLoadIfNeeded(ast::type::Type* type, uint32_t id);
-  /// Geneates an OpStore
+  /// Generates an OpStore. Emits an error and returns false if we're
+  /// currently outside a function.
   /// @param to the ID to store too
   /// @param from the ID to store from
-  void GenerateStore(uint32_t to, uint32_t from);
+  /// @returns true on success
+  bool GenerateStore(uint32_t to, uint32_t from);
   /// Generates a type if not already created
   /// @param type the type to create
   /// @returns the ID to use for the given type. Returns 0 on unknown type.
diff --git a/src/writer/spirv/builder_assign_test.cc b/src/writer/spirv/builder_assign_test.cc
index 53d7a88..ba5e5f5 100644
--- a/src/writer/spirv/builder_assign_test.cc
+++ b/src/writer/spirv/builder_assign_test.cc
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 
 #include <memory>
 
-#include "gtest/gtest.h"
+#include "gmock/gmock.h"
 #include "src/ast/array_accessor_expression.h"
 #include "src/ast/assignment_statement.h"
 #include "src/ast/float_literal.h"
@@ -76,6 +76,33 @@
 )");
 }
 
+TEST_F(BuilderTest, Assign_Var_OutsideFunction_IsError) {
+  ast::type::F32 f32;
+
+  ast::Variable v(Source{}, "var", ast::StorageClass::kOutput, &f32, false,
+                  nullptr, ast::VariableDecorationList{});
+
+  auto* ident =
+      create<ast::IdentifierExpression>(mod->RegisterSymbol("var"), "var");
+  auto* val = create<ast::ScalarConstructorExpression>(
+      create<ast::FloatLiteral>(&f32, 1.0f));
+
+  ast::AssignmentStatement assign(Source{}, ident, val);
+
+  td.RegisterVariableForTesting(&v);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(td.DetermineResultType(&assign)) << td.error();
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(b.GenerateGlobalVariable(&v)) << b.error();
+  ASSERT_FALSE(b.has_error()) << b.error();
+
+  EXPECT_FALSE(b.GenerateAssignStatement(&assign)) << b.error();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(b.has_error());
+  EXPECT_EQ(
+      b.error(),
+      "Internal error: trying to add SPIR-V instruction 62 outside a function");
+}
+
 TEST_F(BuilderTest, Assign_Var_ZeroConstructor) {
   ast::type::F32 f32;
   ast::type::Vector vec(&f32, 3);
diff --git a/src/writer/spirv/builder_constructor_expression_test.cc b/src/writer/spirv/builder_constructor_expression_test.cc
index fc5dfa6..ed54fa1 100644
--- a/src/writer/spirv/builder_constructor_expression_test.cc
+++ b/src/writer/spirv/builder_constructor_expression_test.cc
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 
 #include <string>
 
-#include "gtest/gtest.h"
+#include "gmock/gmock.h"
 #include "spirv/unified1/spirv.h"
 #include "spirv/unified1/spirv.hpp11"
 #include "src/ast/binary_expression.h"
@@ -60,6 +60,18 @@
 )");
 }
 
+TEST_F(SpvBuilderConstructorTest, Type_WithCasts_OutsideFunction_IsError) {
+  auto* t = Construct<f32>(Construct<u32>(1));
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(td.DetermineResultType(t)) << td.error();
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(b.GenerateExpression(t), 0u);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(b.has_error()) << b.error();
+  EXPECT_EQ(b.error(),
+            "Internal error: trying to add SPIR-V instruction 124 outside a "
+            "function");
+}
+
 TEST_F(SpvBuilderConstructorTest, Type) {
   auto* t = vec3<f32>(1.0f, 1.0f, 3.0f);
 
diff --git a/src/writer/spirv/builder_if_test.cc b/src/writer/spirv/builder_if_test.cc
index 65af67c..d46b370 100644
--- a/src/writer/spirv/builder_if_test.cc
+++ b/src/writer/spirv/builder_if_test.cc
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 
 #include <memory>
 
-#include "gtest/gtest.h"
+#include "gmock/gmock.h"
 #include "src/ast/assignment_statement.h"
 #include "src/ast/bool_literal.h"
 #include "src/ast/break_statement.h"
@@ -70,6 +70,28 @@
 )");
 }
 
+TEST_F(BuilderTest, If_Empty_OutsideFunction_IsError) {
+  ast::type::Bool bool_type;
+
+  // Outside a function.
+  // if (true) {
+  // }
+  auto* cond = create<ast::ScalarConstructorExpression>(
+      create<ast::BoolLiteral>(&bool_type, true));
+
+  ast::ElseStatementList elses;
+  auto* block = create<ast::BlockStatement>(Source{}, ast::StatementList{});
+  ast::IfStatement expr(Source{}, cond, block, elses);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(td.DetermineResultType(&expr)) << td.error();
+
+  EXPECT_FALSE(b.GenerateIfStatement(&expr)) << b.error();
+  EXPECT_TRUE(b.has_error());
+  EXPECT_EQ(b.error(),
+            "Internal error: trying to add SPIR-V instruction 247 outside a "
+            "function");
+}
+
 TEST_F(BuilderTest, If_WithStatements) {
   ast::type::Bool bool_type;
   ast::type::I32 i32;
diff --git a/src/writer/spirv/builder_intrinsic_texture_test.cc b/src/writer/spirv/builder_intrinsic_texture_test.cc
index 67e89a5..88b9cb8 100644
--- a/src/writer/spirv/builder_intrinsic_texture_test.cc
+++ b/src/writer/spirv/builder_intrinsic_texture_test.cc
@@ -14,12 +14,13 @@
 
 #include <memory>
 
-#include "gtest/gtest.h"
+#include "gmock/gmock.h"
 #include "src/ast/builder.h"
 #include "src/ast/intrinsic_texture_helper_test.h"
 #include "src/ast/type/depth_texture_type.h"
 #include "src/ast/type/multisampled_texture_type.h"
 #include "src/ast/type/sampled_texture_type.h"
+#include "src/ast/type/storage_texture_type.h"
 #include "src/type_determiner.h"
 #include "src/writer/spirv/builder.h"
 #include "src/writer/spirv/spv_dump.h"
@@ -2740,6 +2741,68 @@
             "\n" + DumpInstructions(b.functions()[0].instructions()));
 }
 
+TEST_P(IntrinsicTextureTest, OutsideFunction_IsError) {
+  auto param = GetParam();
+
+  // The point of this test is to try to generate the texture
+  // intrinsic call outside a function.
+
+  ast::type::Type* datatype = nullptr;
+  switch (param.texture_data_type) {
+    case ast::intrinsic::test::TextureDataType::kF32:
+      datatype = ty.f32;
+      break;
+    case ast::intrinsic::test::TextureDataType::kU32:
+      datatype = ty.u32;
+      break;
+    case ast::intrinsic::test::TextureDataType::kI32:
+      datatype = ty.i32;
+      break;
+  }
+
+  ast::type::Sampler sampler_type{param.sampler_kind};
+  ast::Variable* tex = nullptr;
+  switch (param.texture_kind) {
+    case ast::intrinsic::test::TextureKind::kRegular:
+      tex = Var("texture", ast::StorageClass::kNone,
+                mod->create<ast::type::SampledTexture>(param.texture_dimension,
+                                                       datatype));
+      break;
+
+    case ast::intrinsic::test::TextureKind::kDepth:
+      tex = Var("texture", ast::StorageClass::kNone,
+                mod->create<ast::type::DepthTexture>(param.texture_dimension));
+      break;
+
+    case ast::intrinsic::test::TextureKind::kMultisampled:
+      tex = Var("texture", ast::StorageClass::kNone,
+                mod->create<ast::type::MultisampledTexture>(
+                    param.texture_dimension, datatype));
+      break;
+
+    case ast::intrinsic::test::TextureKind::kStorage: {
+      auto* st = mod->create<ast::type::StorageTexture>(
+          param.texture_dimension, param.access_control, param.image_format);
+      st->set_type(datatype);
+      tex = Var("texture", ast::StorageClass::kNone, st);
+    } break;
+  }
+
+  auto* sampler = Var("sampler", ast::StorageClass::kNone, &sampler_type);
+
+  ASSERT_TRUE(b.GenerateGlobalVariable(tex)) << b.error();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(b.GenerateGlobalVariable(sampler)) << b.error();
+
+  ast::CallExpression call{Source{}, Expr(param.function), param.args(this)};
+
+  EXPECT_TRUE(td.DetermineResultType(&call)) << td.error();
+  EXPECT_EQ(b.GenerateExpression(&call), 0u);
+  EXPECT_THAT(b.error(),
+              ::testing::StartsWith(
+                  "Internal error: trying to add SPIR-V instruction "));
+  EXPECT_THAT(b.error(), ::testing::EndsWith(" outside a function"));
+}
+
 }  // namespace
 }  // namespace spirv
 }  // namespace writer